East Timor

I

INTRODUCTION

East Timor or Timor-Leste, independent republic in Southeast Asia, forming the eastern half of the island of Timor. It is bordered by the Wetar Strait to the north and the Timor Sea to the south. The western half of the island belongs to the Republic of Indonesia and is part of East Nusa Tengarra province.
East Timor was a Portuguese colony from the early 16th century until 1975 and was claimed as a province of Indonesia from 1976 to 1999. In August 1999 the East Timorese population voted to become an independent nation, and the territory was subsequently placed under the administration of the United Nations (UN) as it transitioned to complete independence. It became a fully independent republic in May 2002 officially named the República Democrática de Timor-Leste (Portuguese for Democratic Republic of East Timor). The national capital is Dili, a small port city located on the northern coast.

II

POPULATION

East Timor had an estimated population of 859,700 in 1996, when it was still under Indonesian control. Following the vote for independence in August 1999, violent rampages by Indonesian militia groups forced many East Timorese to flee their homes. UN peacekeeping forces arrived to restore order later that year, and many East Timorese refugees subsequently returned. The estimated population of East Timor in 2008 was 1,107,432. Dili has a population of 49,000 (2003 estimate). Some 92 percent of the population lives in rural areas.

Many East Timorese people are descendants of the Tetum, who traditionally inhabited the south central area of the island. These people speak the Tetum language, a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family. Other smaller ethnic groups, many with their own languages, live in small, scattered communities.

Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages of East Timor. Only a small minority of the population speaks Portuguese, which was introduced when East Timor was a colony of Portugal. However, a variant of Tetum called Tetum Prasa incorporates many Portuguese loan words; it is widely spoken in and around Dili. Bahasa Indonesia and English are also spoken in the country. Literacy is relatively low in East Timor; only 43 percent of individuals aged 15 and older can read and write.

Roman Catholicism is the religion of about 90 percent of the population. Many East Timorese continue to follow traditional animist beliefs. Although Islam and Hinduism have significant followings in many parts of the Malay Archipelago, including Indonesia, neither religion is well established in East Timor.

A

Religion

Upon independence, East Timor became one of only two predominantly Roman Catholic countries in Asia (along with the Philippines), although nearby parts of Indonesia also have Catholic majorities, including West Timor and Flores. The population predominantly identifies as Roman Catholic (97%), though local animist traditions have a persistent and strong influence on the culture. Religious minorities include Muslims (1%) (Including former Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri) and Protestants (1%) (Including Taur Matan Ruak, Commander of the Falintil-FDTL). Smaller Hindu (0.5%), Buddhist (0.1%) and traditional animist minorities make up the remainder.^[46][47][48] Church membership grew considerably under Indonesian rule, as Indonesia's state ideology Pancasila does not recognize traditional beliefs and requires all citizens to believe in God. Although the struggle was not about religion, as a deep-rooted local institution the Church not only symbolized East Timor's distinction from predominantly Muslim Indonesia, but also played a significant role in the resistance movement, as personified by Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo, the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. The constitution acknowledges the Church's role among the East Timorese people although it also stipulates a secular state that guarantees freedom of religion to everyone.

B

languages

East Timor's two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum, which belongs to the Austronesian family of languages spoken throughout Southeast Asia. The predominant form of Tetum, known as Tetun-Dili, grew out of the dialect favored by the colonizers at Dili, and thus has considerable Portuguese influence, but other dialects of Tetum are also widely used in the country, including Tetun-Terik which is spoken along the southwestern coast. Indonesian and English are defined as working languages under the Constitution in the Final and Transitional Provisions, without setting a final date. Another fifteen indigenous languages are spoken: Bekais, Bunak, Dawan, Fataluku, Galoli, Habun, Idalaka, Kawaimina, Kemak, Lovaia, Makalero, Makasai, Mambai, Tokodede, and Wetarese.

Under Indonesian rule, the use of Portuguese was banned, but it was used by the clandestine resistance, especially in communicating with the outside world. The language, along with Tetum, gained importance as a symbol of resistance and freedom and was adopted as one of the two official languages for this reason, and as a link to nations in other parts of the world. It is now being taught and promoted widely with the help of Brazil, Portugal, and the Latin Union, although its prominence in official and public spheres has been met with some hostility from younger Indonesian-educated Timorese.

According to the 2006 UN Development Report (using data from official census), under 5% of the Timorese population is proficient in Portuguese. However, the validity of this report has been questioned by members of the Timorese National Institute of Linguistics, which maintains that Portuguese is spoken by up to 25% of Timorese, with the number of speakers more than doubling in the last five years. Along with other local languages, Tetum remains the most common means of communication between ordinary Timorese, while Indonesian is still widely used in the media and school from high school to university. A large proportion of words in Tetum are derived from Portuguese, but it also shares many Malay-derived words with Indonesian. Many Indonesian words are still in common use in Tetum and other Timorese languages, particularly numbers.

East Timor is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, and a member of the Latin Union. It is the only independent state in Asia with Portuguese as an official language, although this is also one of the official languages of China's Special Administrative Region of Macau.

C

Education

Over 90% of all school buildings were severely damaged or destroyed by the Indonesian military and in the exodus of Indonesians out of East Timor, the nation lost 20% of its primary school teachers and 80% of secondary teachers, most of whom are not expected to return. UNICEF and other international aid organizations responded fairly quickly, however, reestablishing classes for 420 of the country's 800 primary schools by December 1999 plus an additional 273 schools by April 2000.

In 2001, East Timor appointed its first minister of education. At the beginning of the 2001 academic year, there were about 240,000 primary and secondary school students enrolled in classes with over 700 primary schools, 100 junior secondary schools, 40 preschools, and 10 technical colleges. About 6,000 teachers were employed. The National University of East Timor (Universidade Nacional Timor Lorosae—UNTL) opened for classes on 27 November 2000 and had about 5,000 students in attendance in 2003. There are five faculties at the university: agriculture, political science, economics, education and teacher training, and engineering. All new students follow a course including human rights, ethics, philosophy of science, and Timorese history.

The education system includes six years of primary education and six years of secondary education. In 2000, the language of instruction was Indonesian, but this has been a subject of debate. Many are encouraging a switch to the national language of Tetum as a primary language with Portuguese and English as secondary languages. The new minister of education will need to address the issues of continued repairs and rebuilding of schools, providing adequate training for teachers, and establishing a standardized curriculum relevant to East Timorese students.

III

ECONOMY

           

East Timor is one of the least economically developed countries in the world and depends heavily on foreign aid. The infrastructure of East Timor is underdeveloped. The country’s only major road extends eastward from Dili, linking towns along the northern coast. Although natural resources are limited, East Timor has offshore natural gas and oil deposits in the Timor Sea. Under an agreement between East Timor and Australia, East Timor is to receive 90 percent of the revenues generated from these deposits beginning in 2005, with Australia receiving the remaining 10 percent. This development is expected to significantly improve the economy of East Timor.

The gross domestic product (GDP) of East Timor in 2006 was $356,000,000. In 2006 services contributed 55 percent of the GDP, industry contributed 12.8 percent, and agriculture contributed 32.2 percent.

About 73 percent of the labor force is engaged in agriculture. Commercially produced crops include coffee, coconuts, cloves, and cacao. Coffee is the country’s principal export crop. Subsistence crops include rice, maize, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Tropical fruits, including mangoes and pineapples, are also grown. Many rural people continue to practice shifting cultivation (also called swidden or slash-and-burn agriculture) and use simple tools to grow their crops. Commercial forestry is viable in some areas.

V

HISTORY

Timor was a destination on ancient Chinese trade routes and was particularly known for its sandalwood. The Portuguese began colonizing Timor in the early 16th century as European trade and influence expanded in the region. They exploited Timor for its forest products and spices, and made slaves of Timorese people.

A

Colonial East Timor

In the 17th century the Dutch also began establishing bases on Timor, and this led to conflicts between the two European powers. The island was formally divided in a series of agreements beginning in 1859. The Portuguese kept control over the eastern section, and the Dutch government eventually controlled West Timor. Over the years, Portugal showed little interest in East Timor, making life in the neglected colony very difficult. Little money was invested in infrastructure, and illiteracy levels were high. The area became a penal colony for political prisoners who had resisted the government in Portugal. The colonial police force and the use of forced labor instigated a culture of fear in the colony.

During World War II (1939-1945) Japanese forces planned to capture Timor to use as a base for an attack on Australia. In 1942 a major Japanese force invaded Timor. The East Timorese played a significant role in assisting a small number of Australian soldiers fighting the Japanese in 13 months of guerrilla warfare. However, the Australians evacuated in 1943, and the Japanese controlled East Timor until their surrender in 1945. Up to 60,000 East Timorese were killed during the war as a result of fighting, Japanese raids on villages, and Allied bombing aimed at the Japanese invasion forces.

Indonesia declared independence after the end of the war and took over West Timor from the Dutch, but East Timor remained under Portuguese domination. However, in 1974 the government of Portugal was overthrown and the incoming regime began liberating Portugal’s colonies around the world. The following year Indonesia and Portugal held talks regarding the decolonization of East Timor, and a referendum was scheduled to allow the East Timorese to decide their future.

In this period a number of independence movements gained strength. The major protagonists were the Timorese Democratic Union (Uniao Democratica Timorense, or UDT), which supported a conservative move toward independence that included retaining close ties to Portugal, and the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Frente Revolucionária do Timor Leste Independente, or Fretilin), which supported outright independence. Intense negotiations to settle the status of East Timor followed, but in August 1975 talks between Indonesia and Portugal failed. Civil war broke out between UDT and Fretilin, and many refugees fled into Indonesian West Timor. In November Fretilin declared unilateral independence. Despite this declaration and continuing negotiations between all parties, Indonesian forces invaded East Timor in December. In 1976 East Timor was declared an Indonesian province, a designation never recognized by the United Nations (UN).

B

Resistance to Indonesian Rule

Organized resistance to Indonesia’s administration in East Timor grew out of existing anticolonial nationalist organizations, particularly Fretilin. Under the leadership of José Alexandre (“Xanana”) Gusmão, Fretilin mounted guerrilla attacks against the Indonesian forces, inflicting serious damage. Between 1977 and 1979 the Indonesian government resettled villagers in hamlets that were easier to control than the previous disparate rural communities. The resettlement program, which removed people from their land, caused widespread famine. As many as 100,000 Timorese died between 1975 and 1979 as a result of the civil war, the Indonesian invasion and occupation, and famine. Fretilin activist José Ramos-Horta, who fled the island after the Indonesian invasion, spent more than two decades traveling the world as a spokesman for East Timorese autonomy, representing Fretilin at the UN from 1975 to the mid-1980s. Catholic bishop Carlos Ximenes Belo used the power of the Catholic Church to defend East Timorese interests and to remain a visible proindependence figure in East Timor. In 1983 Gusmão initiated talks with the Indonesian military designed to plan the peaceful liberation of East Timor. However, violence flared, a state of emergency was declared, and resistance increased. East Timorese people were resisting not only Indonesian rule, but also the “Indonesianization” of East Timor, as the government resettled thousands of Indonesians from the crowded western areas of the archipelago in Timor.

In November 1991 a huge crowd attending the funeral of a proindependence activist marched through Dili, demonstrating in favor of independence. The Indonesian military fired on the marchers, killing between 100 and 180 mourners and arresting hundreds more. Timorese groups claimed that as many as 100 of the arrested demonstrators and other witnesses of the massacre were subsequently executed. The Dili massacre was a critical turning point in the resistance against the Indonesians, and it attracted widespread international condemnation.

Gusmão was captured by the Indonesian armed forces in 1992 and imprisoned in Jakarta. Bishop Belo and Ramos-Horta continued to push for a peaceful settlement between the Indonesian government and the East Timorese. For their nonviolent efforts at bringing peace to East Timor, Belo and Ramos-Horta were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1996.

C

Independence

Indonesian president Suharto resigned in 1998. His successor, Buharuddin Jusuf (“B. J.”) Habibie, sought to resolve the East Timor issue. A UN-sponsored referendum was planned, allowing the East Timorese to decide if they would become an autonomous region of Indonesia or an independent nation. Prior to the vote, armed clashes occurred between proindependence guerrillas and militia forces. The militia claimed simply to be patriots fighting for Indonesia but actually had roots going back prior to the 1975 Indonesian invasion. Many of the militia leaders had been members of civilian guards often linked to procolonial, and later pro-Indonesian, forces. These groups had a long history of antagonism against Fretilin and were believed to be afraid of retribution if independence was achieved.

The vote was successfully held in August 1999, and autonomy within Indonesia was overwhelmingly rejected in favor of complete independence. Violence between independence supporters and the militia, allegedly backed by Indonesian military, increased significantly immediately after the vote. The international community called for Indonesia to uphold the vote, end its support for the militia, and withdraw its troops. Weeks of violence passed before a UN force under Australian leadership was able to enter East Timor and restore a degree of calm. During this period thousands of East Timorese disappeared. Many fled to refugee camps throughout West Timor, but unknown numbers were killed by the militia and Indonesian troops. Dili and other towns were razed, the infrastructure of East Timor was almost totally destroyed, and thousands of people hid in the mountains with only very basic supplies, if any.

In October 1999 the Indonesian government ratified the results of the August referendum and repealed the 1976 legislation that had annexed East Timor. The Indonesian forces eventually withdrew, and a UN mission was established to help rebuild East Timor and to administer its transition to independence.

In August 2001 East Timor held its first democratic elections, with 16 political parties participating. The elections established an 88-member constituent assembly that was responsible for drafting and adopting East Timor’s first constitution. Fretilin, the party most directly associated with East Timor’s independence struggle, won 55 seats in the assembly, giving it a simple majority. In March 2002 the assembly approved East Timor’s constitution, which provided for a republic with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. In another preparatory step toward full independence, East Timor held its first, direct presidential elections in April. Former resistance leader Xanana Gusmão, who after the 1999 referendum was freed by the Indonesian government and allowed to return to East Timor, was elected to the post with an overwhelming majority.

Amid jubilant crowds of East Timorese celebrating a hard-won independence, East Timor became a fully independent republic—and the world’s newest nation—at the stroke of midnight on May 20, 2002. Although nearly three years of UN governance formally came to an end, UN peacekeepers and civilian police remain in East Timor as part of a new UN mission to help maintain the country’s external and internal security. In September East Timor became a member of the United Nations.

Sporadic violence continued in the country, fueled by the slow nature of economic reform, and the peacekeeping mission was extended in response to outbreaks of rioting. The mission was extended for another year in May 2003, though the size of the peacekeeping force was cut significantly. Meanwhile, the commission dealing with human rights violations in the period 1975-1999, but specifically concerned with the violence following the August 1999 elections, continued to try those responsible for the atrocities. Many cases were dismissed, and there was concern when other participants escaped with lenient sentences. Notable among the convictions was that secured against Eurico Guterres, the former militia leader, who was found responsible for the deaths of over 1,000 people. In 2005 a Truth Commission was established.

In April 2006 more than 600 army personnel were dismissed after going on strike complaining of discrimination and demanding better employment conditions. Demonstrations followed and the violence escalated in May with the former soldiers fighting with the regular army. Thousands fled the capital, Dili, to avoid the violence. International military intervention was requested by the government (to replace the International Peacekeeping Force that left in May 2005). Armed forces, headed by Australia, were readied and deployed at the end of the month. After being blamed for instigating the disturbances, the prime minister was urged to stand down by President Gusmão. Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri resisted the calls but finally resigned at the end of June. He was replaced in early July by José Ramos-Horta, winner of the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to win self-determination for East Timor.

Ramos-Horta was elected the second president of East Timor in May 2007. He defeated Francisco Guterres, leader of Fretilin, the party that had governed East Timor since independence. Gusmão, whom Ramos-Horta succeeded, did not seek re-election. Ramos-Horta pledged to bring stability to the troubled country, although violence broke out within hours of his swearing-in ceremony.

In the June 2007 parliamentary elections Fretilin, now under the leadership of Alkatiri, won the most seats with 21 but failed to establish a majority in the 65-seat legislature. Gusmão’s newly formed National Congress for the Reconstruction of East Timor (CNRT) took only 18 seats but managed to put together a coalition with smaller parties, known as the Alliance of the Parliament Majority that claimed 37 seats. After much contention, Ramos-Horta named Gusmão as East Timor’s prime minister in August 2007.